English is an Indo-European language and belongs to the West Germanic group of the Germanic languages.  Old English originated from a Germanic tribal and linguistic continuum along the Frisian North Sea coast, whose languages gradually evolved into the Anglic languages in the British Isles, and into the Frisian languages and Low German/Low Saxon on the continent.  The Frisian languages, which together with the Anglic languages form the Anglo-Frisian languages, are the closest living relatives of English.  Low German/Low Saxon is also closely related, and sometimes English, the Frisian languages, and Low German are grouped together as the Ingvaeonic (North Sea Germanic) languages, though this grouping remains debated.  Old English evolved into Middle English, which in turn evolved into Modern English.  Particular dialects of Old and Middle English also developed into a number of other Anglic languages, including Scots and the extinct Fingallian and Forth and Bargy (Yola) dialects of Ireland.

Like Icelandic and Faroese, the development of English in the British Isles isolated it from the continental Germanic languages and influences, and it has since diverged considerably.  English is not mutually intelligible with any continental Germanic language, differing in vocabulary, syntax, and phonology, although some of these, such as Dutch or Frisian, do show strong affinities with English, especially with its earlier stages.

Unlike Icelandic and Faroese, which were isolated, the development of English was influenced by a long series of invasions of the British Isles by other peoples and languages, particularly Old Norse and Norman French.  These left a profound mark of their own on the language so that English shows some similarities in vocabulary and grammar with many languages outside its linguistic clades—but it is not mutually intelligible with any of those languages either.  Some scholars have argued that English can be considered a mixed language or a creole—a theory called the Middle English creole hypothesis.  Although the great influence of these languages on the vocabulary and grammar of Modern English is widely acknowledged, most specialists in language contact do not consider English to be a true mixed language.

English is classified as a Germanic language because it shares innovations with other Germanic languages such as Dutch, German, and Swedish.  These shared innovations show that the languages have descended from a single common ancestor called Proto-Germanic.  Some shared features of Germanic languages include the division of verbs into strong and weak classes, the use of modal verbs, and the sound changes affecting Proto-Indo-European consonants, known as Grimm’s and Verner’s laws.  English is classified as an Anglo-Frisian language because Frisian and English share other features, such as the palatalisation of consonants that were velar consonants in Proto-Germanic.

Many ancient standing stone monuments were erected during the prehistoric period; amongst the best known are Stonehenge, Avebury, Devil’s Arrows, Rudston Monolith and Castlerigg.  With the introduction of Ancient Roman architecture, there was a development of basilicas, baths, amphitheatres, triumphal arches, villas, Roman temples, Roman roads, Roman forts, stockades and aqueducts.  It was the Romans who founded the first cities and towns such as London, Bath, York, Chester and St Albans.  Perhaps the best-known example is Hadrian’s Wall stretching right across northern England.  Another well-preserved example is the Roman Baths at Bath, Somerset.

English architecture begins with the architecture of the Anglo-Saxons.  At least fifty surviving English churches are of Anglo-Saxon origin, although in some cases the Anglo-Saxon part is small and much-altered.  All except one timber church are built of stone or brick, and in some cases show evidence of reused Roman work.  The architectural character of Anglo-Saxon ecclesiastical buildings ranges from Coptic-influenced architecture in the early period, through Early Christian basilica influenced architecture, to (in the later Anglo-Saxon period) an architecture characterised by pilaster-strips, blank arcading, baluster shafts and triangular-headed openings.

Many cathedrals of England are ancient, dating from as far back as around 700.  They are a major aspect of the country’s artistic heritage.  Medieval Christianity included the veneration of saints, with pilgrimages to places where particular saints’ relics were interred.  The possession of the relics of a popular saint was a source of funds for an individual church, as the faithful made donations and benefices in the hope that they might receive spiritual aid, a blessing or a healing from the presence of the physical remains of the holy person.  Among those churches to benefit in particular were St Albans Abbey, which contained the relics of England’s first Christian martyr; Ripon with the shrine of its founder St. Wilfrid; Durham, which was built to house the body of Saints Cuthbert of Lindisfarne and Aidan; Ely with the shrine of St. Ethelreda; Westminster Abbey with the magnificent shrine of its founder St. Edward the Confessor; at Chichester, the remains of St. Richard; and at Winchester, those of St. Swithun.

All these saints brought pilgrims to their churches, but among them, the most renowned was Thomas Becket, the late Archbishop of Canterbury, assassinated by henchmen of King Henry II in 1170.  As a place of pilgrimage, Canterbury was, in the 13th century, second only to Santiago de Compostela.  In the 1170s Gothic architecture was introduced at Canterbury and Westminster Abbey. Over the next 400 years, it developed in England, sometimes in parallel with and influenced by Continental forms, but generally with great local diversity and originality.

Following the Norman Conquest, Romanesque architecture (known here as Norman architecture) superseded Anglo-Saxon architecture; later there was a period of transition into English Gothic architecture (of which there are three periods, Early English, Decorated, and Perpendicular). Norman architecture was built on a vast scale from the 11th century onwards in the form of castles and churches to help impose Norman authority upon their dominion.  Many castles remain from the medieval period, such as Windsor Castle (longest-occupied castle in Europe), Bodiam Castle (a moated castle), Tower of London, and Warwick Castle.  Expanding on the Norman base there was also castles, palaces, great houses, universities and parish churches.

English Gothic architecture flourished from the 12th to the early 16th century, and famous examples include Westminster Abbey, the traditional place of coronation for the British monarch, which also has a long tradition as a venue for royal weddings, Canterbury Cathedral, one of the oldest and most famous Christian structures in England; Salisbury Cathedral, which has the tallest church spire in the UK; and York Minster, which is the largest Gothic cathedral in Northern Europe.

The secular medieval architecture throughout England has left a legacy of large stone castles.  The invention of gunpowder and canons made castles redundant, and the English Renaissance which followed facilitated the development of new artistic styles for domestic architecture, notably Tudor, Elizabethan, Jacobean, English Baroque, Queen Anne and Palladian.  Architecture during the Tudor dynasty flourished with magnificent royal palaces, such as Nonsuch Palace, Palace of Placentia, Hampton Court Palace, Hatfield House, Richmond Palace and Palace of Beaulieu.

One of the most acclaimed English architects was Sir Christopher Wren.  He was employed by King Charles II to design and rebuild London and many of its ruined ancient churches following the Great Fire of London in 1666.  Georgian and Neoclassical architecture advanced after the Age of Enlightenment, evoking achievements in elegant architecture and city planning; the Royal Crescent at Bath is one of the best examples of this.  The Regency of George IV is noted for its elegance and achievements in architecture and urban planning.  Regency style is also applied to interior design and decorative arts of the period, typified by elegant furniture and vertically striped wallpaper, and to styles of clothing; for men, as typified by the dandy Beau Brummell and for women the Empire silhouette.  In early modern times, there was an influence from Renaissance architecture until by the 18th century.  Gothic forms of architecture had been abandoned and various classical styles were adopted.  During the Victorian era, Gothic Revival architecture developed in England and was preferred for many types of buildings and city planning.  Victorian was widespread with vast innovations and engineering achievements (bridges, canals, railway stations, etc.).

In addition to this, around the same time, the Industrial Revolution paved the way for buildings such as The Crystal Palace.  The introduction of the sheet glass method into England by the Chance Brothers in 1832 made possible the production of large sheets of cheap but strong glass, and its use in the Crystal Palace created a structure with the greatest area of glass ever seen in a building.  It astonished visitors with its clear walls and ceilings that did not require interior lights.  Edwardian followed in the early 20th century. Other buildings such as cathedrals and parish churches are associated with a sense of traditional Englishness, as is often the palatial ‘stately home’.  Many people are interested in the English country house and the rural lifestyle, evidenced by the number of visitors to properties managed by English Heritage and the National Trust.

Landscape gardening as developed by Capability Brown set an international trend for the English garden. Gardening, and visiting gardens, are regarded as typically English pursuits.  By the end of the 18th century the English garden was being imitated by the French landscape garden, and as far away as St. Petersburg, Russia, in Pavlovsk, the gardens of the future Emperor Paul.  It also had a major influence on the form of the public parks and gardens which appeared around the world in the 19th century.

Inspired by the great landscape artists of the seventeenth century, the English garden presented an idealized view of nature.  At large country houses, the English garden usually included lakes, sweeps of gently rolling lawns set against groves of trees, and recreations of classical temples, Gothic ruins, bridges, and other picturesque architecture, designed to recreate an idyllic pastoral landscape.  The English garden was centred on the English country house, stately homes and parks.  English Heritage and the National Trust preserve large gardens and landscape parks throughout the country.  The RHS Chelsea Flower Show is held every year by the Royal Horticultural Society and is said to be the largest gardening show in the world.

Following the building of the world’s first seaside pier at Ryde, the pier became fashionable at seaside resorts in England during the Victorian era, peaking in the 1860s with 22 being built in that decade.  A symbol of the typical English seaside holiday, by 1914 more than 100 pleasure piers were located around the UK coast.  Regarded as being among the finest Victorian architecture, there are still a significant number of seaside piers of architectural merit still standing, although some have been lost, including two at Brighton in East Sussex and one at New Brighton in the Wirral.  Two piers, Brighton’s now derelict West Pier and Clevedon Pier, were Grade 1 listed.  The Birnbeck Pier in Weston-super-Mare is the only pier in the world linked to an island.  The National Piers Society gives a figure of 55 surviving seaside piers in England.